Chapter 2

Key terms

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Receptor potential · Receptorpotential: A graded change in a sensory receptor’s membrane potential. Size and time course can vary with stimulation; not an action potential.; Appears in: 2.2 From stimulation to nerve signals, 2.4 Hearing and the direction of sound
Action potential · Aktionspotential: A brief electrical impulse that propagates along a nerve fibre. Stronger stimulation is not encoded by making every impulse larger in amplitude.; Appears in: 2.2 From stimulation to nerve signals
Parallel processing · Parallell bearbetning: Different parts of a problem are processed simultaneously in interacting neural circuits. This does not mean the circuits are independent or all computations lack dependencies.; Appears in: 2.2 From stimulation to nerve signals, 2.3 Vision and visual perception, 2.4 Hearing and the direction of sound
Top-down · Top-down: Descending influence from higher to earlier processing levels, for example adjustment to a task. Not always a conscious decision or a prediction.; Appears in: 2.2 From stimulation to nerve signals, 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Motor control · Motorisk kontroll: How the nervous system organises and regulates movement in relation to a task, the body’s state and sensory information.; Appears in: 2.6 The cup in a noisy café, 2.7 How does a movement take shape?, 2.8 Prediction, feedback and learning
Proprioception · Proprioception: Information about the body’s own position and movement, including signals from receptors in muscles, tendons and joints. By itself it does not reveal an unexpected displacement of an untouched object.; Appears in: 2.7 How does a movement take shape?, 2.8 Prediction, feedback and learning
Motor unit · Motorisk enhet: One alpha motor neuron and all the skeletal muscle fibres it innervates. A muscle contains many motor units.; Appears in: 2.7 How does a movement take shape?
Efference copy · Efferenskopia: A copy of motor-command information that can be used to predict its sensory consequences.; Appears in: 2.8 Prediction, feedback and learning
Forward model · Framåtmodell: A conceptual model that predicts sensory consequences from motor-command information and the body’s current state. It is not a conscious little planner.; Appears in: 2.8 Prediction, feedback and learning
Sensory prediction error · Sensoriskt prediktionsfel: The difference between observed and predicted sensory outcome. This differs from the discrepancy between an outcome and the action’s goal.; Appears in: 2.8 Prediction, feedback and learning
Motor adaptation · Motorisk adaptation: Adjustment of movement control across attempts when conditions change, for example under a visuomotor perturbation. It is one part of motor learning, not all skill learning.; Appears in: 2.8 Prediction, feedback and learning
Cerebellum · Lillhjärnan: A brain structure participating in interacting networks and contributing to coordination, prediction and adaptation, among other functions. These contributions are not exclusive to the cerebellum.; Appears in: 2.7 How does a movement take shape?, 2.8 Prediction, feedback and learning
Basal ganglia · Basala ganglier: A group of subcortical nuclei that, in networks with other structures, influence action selection, initiation and vigour, among other functions. They are not a simple on/off switch.; Appears in: 2.7 How does a movement take shape?
End-stopping · Ändstoppning: Reduced response as an oriented bar extends into end zones. Historically “hypercomplex”; can occur in simple and complex cells.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Orientation selectivity · Orienteringsselektivitet: A neuron responding most strongly to lines or edges of a particular tilt and less to others. Tilt, not direction of motion.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Simple cell · Enkel cell: Visual-cortex cell whose receptive field has elongated side-by-side ON and OFF regions; its response depends on orientation, position and contrast polarity.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Complex cell · Komplex cell: Visual-cortex cell with a preferred orientation that can keep responding despite shifts or light–dark swaps within a bounded field.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Cortical magnification · Kortikal förstoring: How much cortex represents a given part of the visual field. Linear magnification is measured as millimetres along the cortical surface per degree of visual angle; the centre has greater magnification than the periphery. Areal magnification is measured separately in mm² per square degree.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Orientation column · Orienteringskolumn: Classical description of neighbouring neurons in primate V1 preferring similar orientations. An organisational principle, not a regular grid.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Hypercolumn · Hyperkolumn: Classical description of a small V1 region that collectively covers different orientations, and representation from both eyes, for a limited part of the visual field. Not identical, sharply bounded boxes.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Ocular-dominance column · Ögondominanskolumn: Spatial organisation in V1 in which neurons, especially in layer 4C, are driven mainly by one eye or the other. Distinct from orientation columns; “mainly” does not exclude influence from the other eye.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Binocular disparity · Binokulär disparitet: The difference in a corresponding feature’s image position between the eyes, relative to gaze. Its sign depends on the coordinate convention.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Stereopsis · Stereopsis: Depth perception based on binocular disparity; one of several sources of depth information.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Vergence · Vergens: Eye rotations that direct both eyes’ gaze towards a common point; distinct from lens accommodation.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Correspondence problem · Korrespondensproblemet: The problem of determining which features in the two eyes’ images correspond to the same part of the scene.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
The three cone classes (S, M, L) · Tapparnas tre klasser (S, M, L): Three cone classes with broad, overlapping wavelength sensitivities. A single cone cannot distinguish wavelength from intensity; colour requires comparison across the classes.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Opponent processing · Opponent bearbetning: Schematic neural combinations that weigh cone-class contributions against each other, such as L versus M or S versus L+M. Simplified descriptions, not exact universal channels.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Colour constancy · Färgkonstans: The relative stability of a surface’s perceived colour when the illumination changes. Partial and dependent on the scene context.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Chromatic adaptation · Kromatisk anpassning: Adjustment of the visual system’s sensitivity to the prevailing illumination; one of several processes contributing to colour constancy.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Simultaneous colour contrast · Simultan färgkontrast: The same colour patch can look different depending on its surroundings, even when the patch is physically unchanged. Related to colour constancy but not proof of its mechanism.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Border ownership · Figurtillhörighet (border ownership): The assignment of an edge in the image to the figure on one of its sides. Many studied macaque V2 and V4 neurons respond differently to the same local edge depending on which side contains the figure.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Motion direction · Rörelseriktning: The direction in which something in the visual field moves – a property distinct from a contour's orientation. Neurons can be sensitive to one, the other, or both.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Inferior temporal cortex (IT) · Inferiora temporalkortex (IT): Region in the lower temporal lobe, part of ventral visual processing. Activity patterns across many neurons carry information about objects and categories.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Tolerance (in recognition) · Tolerans (vid igenkänning): Representations that can still distinguish objects when an image moves or changes size. Limited, not complete invariance.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Blindsight · Blindseende (blindsight): Better-than-chance responses to stimuli in a visual field where, after brain injury, the person reports no visual experience. A limited residual ability.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Cortical blindness · Kortikal blindhet: Loss of vision caused by damage to the cerebral cortex, especially V1, rather than the eye or optic nerve.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Homonymous hemianopia · Homonym hemianopsi: Loss of the same visual half-field for both eyes, for example after extensive unilateral damage to V1 on the opposite side.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Cerebral achromatopsia · Cerebral akromatopsi: Acquired loss of colour vision after brain injury, often in posterior ventral occipital regions; severity varies.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Visual agnosia · Visuell agnosi: Impaired recognition through vision that cannot be adequately explained by, for example, poor visual acuity.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Prosopagnosia (face blindness) · Prosopagnosi (ansiktsblindhet): Difficulty recognising whose face it is; can be acquired or developmental.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Acquired alexia · Förvärvad alexi: Impaired reading after brain injury in someone who could previously read.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Optic ataxia · Optisk ataxi: Difficulty guiding the hand to an object the person can see, often after posterior parietal damage.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Akinetopsia · Akinetopsi: Severely impaired motion perception after brain injury.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Sensation · Sensoriska processer: How stimulation is registered by sensory receptors and represented in the nervous system.; Appears in: 2.1 How does the world become an experience?, 2.2 From stimulation to nerve signals
Perception · Perception: How sensory information is organised and interpreted so that objects, sounds and events take on a meaningful form.; Appears in: 2.1 How does the world become an experience?, 2.3 Vision and visual perception, 2.5 When the senses work together
Transduction · Transduktion: The conversion of physical or chemical influence into electrical changes in a sensory receptor.; Appears in: 2.1 How does the world become an experience?, 2.2 From stimulation to nerve signals, 2.4 Hearing and the direction of sound
Photoreceptor · Fotoreceptor: Light-sensitive receptor cell in the retina – a rod or a cone. Light hyperpolarises the cell and reduces its glutamate release.; Appears in: 2.2 From stimulation to nerve signals, 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Receptive field · Receptivt fält: The area of the sensory surface, for example part of the visual field, where stimulation can increase or decrease one particular neuron's activity. It describes where influences occur, not the cell's body.; Appears in: 2.2 From stimulation to nerve signals, 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Lateral inhibition · Lateral inhibition: Suppressive influence between neighbouring signals through neural circuits. In the retina, such circuitry contributes to surround influences on one cell's response; the term does not mean neighbouring ganglion cells simply inhibit one another.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Centre–surround · Centrum–omgivning: A functional response pattern in which the centre and surround of one cell's receptive field have opposing influences. ON- and OFF-centre pathways have reversed preferences; not all cells have this simple organisation.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Retinotopy · Retinotopi: An organisation in which neighbouring points on the retina, and thus in the visual field, are represented by neighbouring nerve cells in a visual pathway or area.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Tonotopy · Tonotopi: An ordered representation of sound frequency. In the cochlea the base responds mainly to high frequencies and the apex to low ones.; Appears in: 2.4 Hearing and the direction of sound
Multimodal perception · Multimodal perception: Perception that builds on information from several senses being integrated, especially when the signals plausibly belong to the same event.; Appears in: 2.5 When the senses work together, 2.6 The cup in a noisy café
Ventral stream · Ventrala strömmen: Processing from the occipital lobe towards the temporal lobe, with an emphasis on recognising objects and faces. Works together with the dorsal stream.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception
Dorsal stream · Dorsala strömmen: Processing from the occipital lobe towards the parietal lobe, with an emphasis on spatial information and visually guided action.; Appears in: 2.3 Vision and visual perception, 2.6 The cup in a noisy café
Feedback · Återkoppling: In perceptual networks, feedback can mean signals from later to earlier processing stages. In movement control, sensory feedback means incoming information about the body and an action’s consequences that can be used for regulation.; Appears in: 2.1 How does the world become an experience?, 2.3 Vision and visual perception, 2.6 The cup in a noisy café, 2.7 How does a movement take shape?, 2.8 Prediction, feedback and learning